A One-Act Drama:The Early Human Embryo:'Scientific' Myths and
Scientific Facts
Implications for Ethics and Public Policy, Medicine and Human Dignity
Notes
1. But see, e.g., Dianne N. Irving, "Philosophical and
scientific expertise: An analysis of the arguments on 'personhood'", in Linacre Quarterly (February 1993), 60:1:18-46.
2. See, e.g., Richard McCormick, S.J., "Who or what is
the preembryo?", Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal 1:1 (1991). In
this paper McCormick draws heavily on the work of frog embryologist Clifford
Grobstein, as well as from "an unpublished study of a research group of the
Catholic Health Association entitled 'The Status and Use of the Human
Preembryo', (p. 14).
The influence of the McCormick/Grobstein term "pre-embryo" was (and still
is) widespread even among Catholic scholars. In addition to the works of
McCormick and Grobstein, see acceptance of the term "pre-embryo" also in:
Andre E. Hellegers, "Fetal development," in Thomas A. Mappes and Jane S.
Zembatty (eds.), Biomedical Ethics, (New York: Macmillan,
1981); Hellegers, "Fetal
development", Theological Studies (1970), 31:3-9;
Charles E. Curran, "Abortion:
Contemporary debate in philosophical and religious ethics", in W. T. Reich
(ed.), Encyclopedia of Bioethics 1 (London: The Free Press, 1978),
pp. 17-26; Kevin Wildes, "Book Review: Human Life: Its Beginning
and Development" (L'Harmattan, Paris: International Federation of
Catholic Universities, 1988); Carlos Bedate and Robert Cefalo, "The zygote:
To be or not be a person", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1989),
14:6:641; Robert C. Cefalo, "Book Review: Embryo Experimentation,
Peter Singer et al (eds.); 'Eggs, embryos and ethics'", Hastings Center
Report (1991), 21:5:41; Mario Moussa and Thomas A. Shannon, "The search
for the new pineal gland: Brain life and personhood", The Hastings Center
Report (1992), 22:3:30-37; Carol Tauer, The Moral Status of the
Prenatal Human (Doctoral Dissertation in Philosophy; Kennedy Institute
of Ethics, Georgetown University, Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University,
1981) (Sister Tauer's dissertation mentor was Richard McCormick; she later
went on to become the ethics co-chair of the NIH Human Embryo Research Panel
1994); C. Tauer, "The tradition of probabilism and the moral status of the
early embryo", in Patricia B. Jung and Thomas A. Shannon, Abortion and
Catholicism (New York: Crossroad, 1988), pp. 54-84; Lisa S. Cahill,
"Abortion, autonomy, and community", in Jung and Shannon, Abortion and
Catholicism (1988), pp. 85-98; Joseph F. Donceel, "A liberal Catholic's
view", in Jung and Shannon, Abortion and Catholicism (1988), pp.
48-53; H. Tristram Engelhardt, The Foundations of Bioethics (New
York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 111; William A. Wallace, "Nature
and human nature as the norm in medical ethics", in Edmund D. Pellegrino,
John P. Langan and John Collins Harvey (eds.), Catholic Perspectives on
Medical Morals (Dordrecht: Kluwer Academic Publishing, 1989), pp. 23-53;
Norman Ford, When Did I Begin? (New York: Cambridge University Press,
1988), p. 298; Antoine Suarez, "Hydatidiform moles and teratomas confirm the
human identity of the preimplantation embryo", Journal of Medicine and
Philosophy (1990), 15:627-635; Thomas J. Bole, III, "Metaphysical
accounts of the zygote as a person and the veto power of facts", Journal
of Medicine and Philosophy (1989), 14:647-653; Bole, "Zygotes, souls,
substances, and persons", Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1990),
15:637-652.
See also: See Richard McCormick's testimony in The National Commission
for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research;
Report and Recommendations; Research on the Fetus; U.S. Department of
Health, Education and Welfare, 1975, pp. 34-35; McCormick, How Brave a
New World? (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown University Press), p. 76;
McCormick, "Proxy consent in the experimentation situation", Perspectives
in Biology and Medicine (1974), 18:2-20; Paul Ramsey's testimony in The
National Commission for the Protection of Human Subjects of Biomedical and
Behavioral Research; Report and Recommendations; Research on the Fetus;
U.S. Department of Health, Education and Welfare, 1975, pp. 35-36.
The use of the term "pre-embryo"
has been quite widespread for decades -- nationally and internationally. In
addition to the Catholic scholars who accepted the use of the term
"pre-embryo" as noted above, a partial list of secular bioethics writers who
also accepted the use of the term in these debates includes: Paul Ramsey,
"Reference points in deciding about abortion" in J.T. Noonan (ed.), The
Morality of Abortion (Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press, 1970),
pp. 60-100, esp. p. 75; John Robertson, "Extracorporeal embryos and
the abortion debate", Journal of Contemporary Health Law and Policy
(1986), 2;53;53-70; Robertson, "Symbolic issues in embryo research", The
Hastings Center Report (1995, Jan./Feb.), 37-38; Robertson, "The case of
the switched embryos", The Hastings Center Report (1995), 25:6:13-24;
Howard W. Jones, "And just what is a preembryo?", Fertility and Sterility
52:189-91; Jones and C. Schroder, "The process of human fertilization:
Implications for moral status", Fertility and Sterility (August
1987), 48:2:192; Clifford
Grobstein, "The early development of human embryos", Journal of Medicine
and Philosophy (1985), 10:213-236; also, Science and the Unborn
(New York: Basic Books, 1988), p. 61; Michael Tooley, "Abortion and
infanticide", in The Rights and Wrongs of Abortion, M. Cohen et al
(eds.) (New Jersey: Princeton University Press, 1974), pp. 59 and 64; Peter
Singer and Helga Kuhse, "The ethics of embryo research", Law, Medicine
and Health Care (1987),14:13-14; Kuhse and Singer, "For sometimes
letting - and helping - die", Law, Medicine and Health Care (1986),
3:40:149-153; Kuhse and Singer, Should The Baby Live? The Problem of
Handicapped Infants (Oxford University Press, 1985), p.138; Singer,
"Taking life: Abortion", in Practical Ethics (London: Cambridge
University Press, 1981), pp. 122-123; Peter Singer, Helga Kuhse, Stephen
Buckle, Karen Dawson, Pascal Kasimba (eds.), Embryo Experimentation
(New York: Cambridge University Press, 1990); R.M. Hare, "When does
potentiality count? A comment on Lockwood," Bioethics (1988),
2:3:214; Michael Lockwood,
"When does life begin?", in Michael Lockwood (ed.), Moral Dilemma's in
Modern Medicine (New York: Oxford University Press, 1985), p. 10;
Hans-Martin Sass, "Brain life and brain death: A proposal for normative
agreement," Journal of Medicine and Philosophy (1989), 14:45-59;
Michael Lockwood, "Warnock versus Powell (and Harradine): When does
potentiality count?" Bioethics (1988), 2:3:187-213.
See also the use of the term "pre-embryo" in many national and
international documents (a small sample): Ethics Advisory Board (1979) Report and Conclusions: HEW Support of Research Involving Human In Vitro
Fertilization and Embryo Transfer, Washington, D.C.: United States
Department of Health, Education and Welfare, p. 101; National Institutes
of Health Human Embryo Research Panel Meetings (Washington, D.C.: NIH,
1994), Feb. 2 meeting, pp. 27, 31, 50-80, 85-87, 104-106; in the Feb. 3,
1994 meeting, pp. 6-55; April 11 meeting, pp. 23-41, 9-22. See also, Dame
Mary Warnock, Report of the Committee of Inquiry into Human Fertilization
and Embryology, (London: Her Majesty's Stationary Office, 1984), pp. 27
and 63; British House of Lords,
"Human Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001";
Commonwealth of Australia, Select Senate Committee on the Human Embryo
Experimentation Bill, (Canberra, Australia: Official Hansard Report,
Commonwealth Government Printer, 1986); Parliamentary Assembly of the
Council of Europe, On the Use of Human Embryos and Foetuses for
Diagnostic, Therapeutic, Scientific, Industrial and Commercial Purposes,
Recommendation 1046, 1986; and On the Use of Human Embryos and Foetuses
in Scientific Research, Recommendation 1000, 1989; Ethics Committee of
the American Fertility Society (AFS), "Ethical Considerations of the New
Reproductive Technologies", Fertility and Sterility (1986), 46:27S.
See also Jonsen, esp. Chapters 4 and 12.
3. D.N. Irving,
"The woman and the physician facing abortion: The role of correct science in
the formation of conscience and the moral decision making process",
presented at "The Scientific Congress, The Guadalupan Appeal: The dignity
and status of the human embryo", Mexico City, October 28-29, 1999; published
in Un Appello Per La Vita: The Guadalupan Appeal: Dignita E Statuto
Dell'embryione Umano (Libreria Editrice Vaticana (2000), pp.
203-223, also in, Linacre Quarterly Nov./Dec. 2000); D.N. Irving,
"The impact of scientific 'misinformation' on other fields: Philosophy,
theology, biomedical ethics and public policy", Accountability in
Research April 1993, 2(4):243-272.
4. Aristotle, " ... the least initial deviation from
the truth is multiplied later a thousand fold.", De Coelo, I,
1.5.27(1)b8-13, in Richard McKeon (ed.), The Basic Works of Aristotle
(New York: Random House, 1941); St. Thomas Aquinas, De Ente et Essentia,
Armand Mauer (trans.) (Toronto: The Pontifical Institute of Mediaeval
Studies, 1983), p. 28.
5. D. N. Irving, "When does a human being begin? 'Scientific' myths and scientific facts",
International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy, 1999,
19:3/4:22-47.
6. Ronan O'Rahilly and Fabiola Muller, Human
Embryology & Teratology (New York: Wiley-Liss, 2001), p. ix.
7. O'Rahilly and Muller 2001, p. 12.
8. For a current textbook on clinical and research
studies in in vitro fertilization, see Peter R. Brinsden (ed.), A
Textbook of In Vitro Fertilization and Assisted Reproduction, 2nd
ed. (New York: The Parthenon Publishing Group, 1999); see also, Geoffrey
Sher, Virginia Marriage Davis, and Jean Stoess, In Vitro Fertilization:
The A.R.T. of Making Babies (New York: Fact On File, 1998).
9. Wilhelm His, Anatomie menschlicher Embryonen
(Leipzig: Vogel, 1880-1885); O"Rahilly and Muller 1994, p. 3; Keith L. Moore
and T.V.N. Persaud, The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology
(use 6th ed. only) (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1998), p. 12.
10. FULL REFERENCES: "Although life is a continuous
process, fertilization ... is a critical landmark because, under
ordinary circumstances, a new, genetically distinct human organism is formed
when the chromosomes of the male and female pronuclei blend in the oocyte.
This remains true even though the embryonic genome is not actually activated
until 2-8 cells are present at about 2-3 days. ... Fertilization is the
procession of events that begins when a spermatozoon makes contact with a
secondary oocyte or its investments, and ends with the intermingling of
maternal and paternal chromosomes at metaphase of the first mitotic division
of the zygote. ... Fertilization takes place normally in the ampulla
(lateral end) of the uterine tube. (p. 31); ... Coalescence of homologous
chromosomes results in a one-cell embryo. ...The zygote is characteristic of
the last phase of fertilization and is identified by the first cleavage
spindle. It is a unicellular embryo and is a highly specialized cell. The
combination of 23 chromosomes present in each pronucleus results in 46
chromosomes in the zygote. Thus the diploid number is restored and the
embryonic genome is formed. The embryo now exists as a genetic
unity." (p. 33); "... [I]t is now accepted that the word embryo, as
currently used in human embryology, means 'an unborn human in the first 8
weeks' from fertilization'. Embryonic life begins with the formation of a
new embryonic genome (slightly prior to its activation)." (p. 87) [O'Rahilly
and Muller, 2001]
"Human pregnancy begins with the fusion of an egg and a sperm, but a
great deal of preparation precedes this event. First both male and female
sex cells must pass through a long series of changes (gametogenesis) that
convert them genetically and phenotypically into mature gametes, which are
capable of participating in the process of fertilization. Next, the gametes
must be released from the gonads and make their way to the upper part of the
uterine tube [fallopian tube], where fertilization normally takes place. ...
Finally, the fertilized egg, now properly called an embryo, must make its
way into the uterus ....." (p. 2); ... "'Fertilization age' dates the age of
the embryo from the time of fertilization." (p. 23) " ... In the female,
sperm transport begins in the upper vagina and ends in the ampulla of the
uterine tube [fallopian tube] where the spermatozoa make contact with the
ovulated egg." (p. 27) [Bruce M. Carlson, Human Embryology &
Developmental Biology (St. Louis: Mosby, 1999)].
"In this text, we begin our description of the developing human with the
formation and differentiation of the male and female sex cells or gametes,
which will unite at fertilization to initiate the embryonic development of a
new individual. ... Fertilization takes place in the oviduct [not the
uterus]... resulting in the formation of a zygote containing a single
diploid nucleus. Embryonic development is considered to begin at this
point." (p. 1); " ... These pronuclei fuse with each other to produce the
single, diploid, 2N nucleus of the fertilized zygote. This moment of zygote
formation may be taken as the beginning or zero time point of embryonic
development." (p. 17). [William J. Larson, Essentials of Human Embryology
(New York: Churchill Livingstone, 1997)]
"Human development is a continuous process that begins when an oocyte
(ovum) from a female is fertilized by a sperm (or spermatozoon) from a
male." (p. 2); " ... but the embryo begins to develop as soon as the
oocyte is fertilized. " (p. 2); " ... Zygote: this cell results from the
union of an oocyte and a sperm. A zygote is the beginning of a new human
being (i.e., an embryo). " (p. 2); "... Human development begins at
fertilization, the process during which a male gamete or sperm ... unites
with a female gamete or oocyte ... to form a single cell called a zygote.
This highly specialized, totipotent cell marks the beginning of each of us
as a unique individual.". (p. 18) "... The usual site of
fertilization is the ampulla of the uterine tube [fallopian tube], its
longest and widest part. If the oocyte is not fertilized here, it slowly
passes along the tube to the uterus, where it degenerates and is reabsorbed.
Although fertilization may occur in other parts of the tube, it does not
occur in the uterus. ... Human development begins when a oocyte is
fertilized. Fertilization ... begins with contact between a sperm and a
oocyte and ends with the intermingling of maternal and paternal chromosomes
of the zygote, a unicellular embryo." (p. 34) [Keith L. Moore and T.V.N.
Persaud, The Developing Human: Clinically Oriented Embryology (use
6th ed. only) (Philadelphia: W.B. Saunders Company, 1998)]
"Of verified pregnancies that have survived the first 4 postovulatory
weeks, it is generally maintained that 15-20% are lost through spontaneous
abortion. Under 4 weeks, however, the number is far larger and may be as
high as 40%. Many fertilized oocytes fail to become implanted, and as many
as one-third of those implanted may be lost without being recognized. The
total loss of conceptuses from fertilization to birth is believed to be
considerable, perhaps even as high as 50% to nearly 80%. A high percentage
of abortuses (30-80%, depending on the study) are structurally abnormal, and
it is maintained that all abortuses under 4 postovulatory weeks have
abnormally formed embryonic tissue. Most malformed conceptuses (more than
90%) are spontaneously aborted, compared with the normal 18%. Thus,
spontaneous abortion greatly reduces the number of malformed fetuses born."
(O'Rahilly and Muller 2001, pp. 92-93).
"Early spontaneous abortions occur for a variety of reasons, one being
the presence of chromosomal abnormalities in the zygote. Carr and Gedeon
(1977) estimated that about half of all known spontaneous abortions occur
because of chromosomal abnormalities. Hertig et al. (1959), while examining
blastocysts recovered from early pregnancies, found several clearly
defective dividing zygotes ... and blastocysts. Some were so abnormal that
survival would not have been likely. The early loss of embryos, once called
pregnancy wastage, appears to represent a disposal of abnormal conceptuses
that could not have developed normally, i.e., there is a natural screening
of embryos. Without this screening, about 12% instead of 2 to 3% of infants
would likely be congenitally malformed (Warkany, 1981)." (p.p. 42 - 43)
[Moore and Persaud 1998].
11. For extensive scientific references for these
processes of gametogenesis and fertilization, see D.N. Irving, "When does a
human being begin? 'Scientific' myths and scientific facts", International Journal of Sociology and Social Policy 1999, 19:3/4:22-47.
12. "Gametogenesis is the production of germ cells
(gametes), i.e., spermatozoa and oocytes. ... The gametes are believed to
arise by successive divisions from a distinct line of cells (the germ
plasm), and the cells that are not directly concerned with gametogenesis are
termed somatic. ... The 46 human chromosomes consist of 44 autosomes and two
sex chromosomes: X and Y. In the male the sex chromosomes are XY; in the
female they are XX. Phenotypic sex is normally determined by the presence
or absence of a Y chromosome. ... During the differentiation of gametes,
diploid cells are termed primary, and haploid cells are called secondary,
e.g., secondary oocyte. Diploidrefers to the presence of two sets of
homologous chromosomes: 23 pairs, making a total of 46. This is
characteristic of somatic and primordial germ cells alike. Haploid is used
for a single set of 23 chromosomes, as in gametes." [O'Rahilly and Muller
2001, p. 19].
"A subset of the diploid body cells constitute the germ line. These give
rise to specialized diploid cells in the ovary and testis that can divide by
meiosis to produce haploid gametes (sperm and egg). ... The other cells of
the body, apart from the germ line, are known as somatic cells ... most
somatic cells are diploid ... ." [Strachan and Read 1999, p. 28].
"Meiosis is a special type of cell division that involves two meiotic
cell divisions; it takes place in germ cells only. Diploid germ cells give
rise to haploid gametes (sperms and oocytes)." [Moore and Persaud 1998, p.
18].
"In a mitotic division, each germ cell produces two diploid
progeny that are genetically equal." [Carlson 1999, p. 2].
"Like all normal somatic (i.e., non-germ cells), the
primordial germ cells contain 23 pairs of chromosomes, or a total of 46. "
[Larsen 1998, p. 4].
13. "Future somatic cells thereby lose their
totipotency and are liable to senescence, whereas germ cells regain their
totipotency after meiosis and fertilization." [O'Rahilly and Muller
2001, p. 39]. "Early primordial germ cells are spared; their genomic DNA
remains very largely unmethylated until after gonadal differentiation and as
the germ cells develop whereupon widespread de novo methylation
occurs." [Tom Strachan and Andrew Read, Human Molecular Genetics 2
(2nd ed.) (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1999), p. 191] See also notes 19, 20
and 22 for an explanation of the process of "regulation" involved in
"twinning" when separated totipotent cells, such as human primitive germ line cells, and the cells of the inner cell mass
of the 5-7-day old human blastocyst, are involved. Note too that because
human germ line cells, even the more mature germ line cells, are still diploid, and therefore they too can be cloned.
14. "Cells differentiate by the switching off of large
portions of their genome." [O'Rahilly and Mueller 2001, p. 39]. "Gene
expression is associated with demethylation. Methylation of DNA is one of
the parameters that controls transcription. This is one of several
regulatory events that influence the activity of a promoter; like the other
regulatory events, typically this will apply to both copies of the gene."
[Benjamin Lewin, Genes VII (New York: Oxford University Press, Inc.,
2000), p. 678; also p. 603]. "Gene regulation as the primary function for
DNA methylation: DNA methylation in vertebrates has been viewed as a
mechanism for silencing transcription and may constitute a default
position." [Strachan and Read, pp. 193 ff]
15. " The expression of genes is determined by a
regulatory network that probably takes the form of a cascade. Expression of
the first set of genes at the start of embryonic development leads to
expression of the genes involved in the next stage of development, which in
turn leads to a further stage, and so on until all the tissues of the adult
are functioning." [Lewin, p. 63; also pp. 914, 950].
16. See, e.g., G. Kollias, J. Hurst, E. deBoer, and F.
Grosveld, "The Human beta-globulin gene contains a downstream developmental
specific enhancer", Nucleic Acids Research 15(14) (July 1987),
5739-47; R. K. Humphries et al, "Transfer of human and murine globin-gene
sequences into transgenic mice", American Journal of Human Genetics 37(2) (1985), 295-310; A. Schnieke et al, "Introduction of the human pro
alpha 1 (I) collagen gene into pro alpha 1 (I) - deficient Mov-13 mouse
cells leads to formation of functional mouse-human hybrid type I collagen",
Proceedings of the National Academy of Science - USA 84(3) (Feb.
1987), pp. 764-8.
17. D. Irving, "Testimony Before the U.S. House
of Representatives' Hearing on Cloning: Legal, Medical, Ethical and Social
Issues", Linacre Quarterly May 1999, 66:2:26-40.
18. "A variety of early experiments in mice were also
unsuccessful before the landmark study of Wilmut et al (1997)
reported successful cloning of an adult sheep. For the first time, an adult
nucleus had been reprogrammed to become totipotent once more, just
like the genetic material in the fertilized oocyte from which the donor
cell had ultimately developed. ... Successful cloning of adult animals has
forced us to accept that genome modifications once considered
irreversible can be reversed and that the genomes of adult cells can be
reprogrammed by factors in the oocyte to make them totipotent once
again. ... Other more recent studies are now forcing us to reconsider
the potency of other cells. ... [A]nd so the developmental potential of stem
cells is not restricted to the differentiated elements of the tissue in
which they reside (Bjornson et al, 1999)." Tom Strachan & Andrew P. Read, Human Molecular Genetics 2 (New York: Wiley-Liss, 1999), p. 509.
[emphases added]
19. "Early mammalian embryogenesis is considered to be
a highly regulative process. Regulation is the ability of an embryo
or an organ primordium to produce a normal structure if parts have been
removed or added. At the cellular level, it means that the fates of cells in
a regulative system are not irretrievably fixed and that the cells can still
respond to environmental cues." (pp. 44-49). ... Blastomere removal and
addition experiments have convincingly demonstrated the regulative nature
(i.e., the strong tendency for the system to be restored to wholeness) of
early mammalian embryos. Such knowledge is important in understanding the
reason exposure of early human embryos to unfavorable environmental
influences typically results in either death or a normal embryo." (p. 46)
[Carlson 1999]
20. "The embryo enters the uterine cavity after about
half a week ... Each cell (blastomere) is considered to be still totipotent
(capable, on isolation, of forming a complete embryo), and separation of
these early cells is believed to account for one-third of cases of
monozygotic twinning." (p. 37) "... Biopsy of an embryo can be performed by
removing one cell from a 4-cell, or two cells from an 8-cell, embryo. This
does not seem to decrease the developmental capacity of the remaining
cells." [O'Rahilly and Muller 2001, p.37]
"Of the experimental techniques used to demonstrate regulative properties
of early embryos, the simplest is to separate the blastomeres of early
cleavage-stage embryos and determine whether each one can give rise to an
entire embryo. This method has been used to demonstrate that single
blastomeres, from two- and sometimes four-cell embryos can form normal
embryos, ... " (p. 44); " ... Some types of twinning represent a
natural experiment that demonstrates the highly regulative nature of early
human embryos, ..." (p. 48); "... Monozygotic twins and some triplets, on
the other hand, are the product of one fertilized egg. They arise by the
subdivision and splitting of a single embryo. Although monozygotic twins
could ... arise by the splitting of a two-cell embryo, it is commonly
accepted that most arise by the subdivision of the inner cell mass in a
blastocyst. Because the majority of monozygotic twins are perfectly normal,
the early human embryo can obviously be subdivided and each component
regulated to form a normal embryo." (p. 49) [Carlson 1999]
"If the splitting occurred during cleavage -- for example, if the two
blastomeres produced by the first cleavage division become separated -- the
monozygotic twin blastomeres will implant separately, like dizygotic twin
blastomeres, and will not share fetal membranes. Alternatively, if the
twins are formed by splitting of the inner cell mass within the blastocyst,
they will occupy the same chorion but will be enclosed by separate amnions
and will use separate placentae, each placenta developing around the
connecting stalk of its respective embryo. Finally, if the twins are formed
by splitting of a bilaminar germ disc, they will occupy the same amnion."
(p. 325) [Larsen 1998]
21. "[O]ther events are possible after this time
[segmentation -- 14 days] which indicate that the notion of
"irreversible individuality" may need some review if it is to be considered
as an important criterion in human life coming "to be the individual human
being it is ever thereafter to be". There are two conditions which raise
questions about the adequacy of this notion: conjoined twins, sometimes
known as Siamese twins, and fetus-in-fetu. ... Although conjoined twins and
fetus-in-fetu have rarely been documented, the possibility of their
occurring raises several points related to the notion of irreversible
individuality. Conjoined twins arise from the twinning process occurring
after the primitive streak has begun to form, that is, beyond 14 days after
fertilization, or, in terms of the argument from segmentation, beyond the
time at which irreversible individuality is said to exist. ...
Similar reasoning leads to the same confusion in the case of fetus-in-fetu.
... One case recorded and studied in detail showed that the engulfed twin
had developed to the equivalent of four months gestation and
consisted of brain, bones, nerve tissue, muscle and some rudimentary organs.
Microscopic study showed that engulfment had occurred at about four weeks
after fertilization, in terms of the argument for segmentation long after
the time when it is claimed that individuality is resolved." [Her reference
is: Yasuda, Y., Mitomori, T., Matsurra, A. and Tanimura, T., "Fetus-in-fetu:
report of a case", Teratology 31 (1985), 337-41.] [Karen Dawson,
"Segmentation and moral status", in Peter Singer, Helga Kuhse, Stephen
Buckle, Karen Dawson, and Pascal Kasimba, Embryo Experimentation (New
York: Cambridge University Press, 1990), pp. 57-59].
"MZ [monozygotic] twinning usually begins in the blastocyst stage, around
the end of the first week (before formation of the germ disc starting at 8
days).... Uncommonly, early separation of embryonic blastomeres, (e.g.,
during the 2 - 8 cell stages) results in MZ twins with two amnions, two
chorions, and two placentas that may or may not be fused. (p. 159); ...
About 35% of MZ twins result from early separation of the embryonic
blastomeres; i.e., during the first 3 days of development. The other 65% of
MZ twins originate at the end of the first week of development; i.e., right
after the blastocyst has formed [5-7 days]. Late division of early embryonic
cells, such as division of the embryonic disc during the second week,
results in MZ twins that are in one amniotic sac and one chorionic sac." (p.
159); ... If the embryonic disk does not divide completely, or adjacent
embryonic discs fuse, various types of conjoined MZ twins may form. ... the
incidence of conjoined (Siamese) twins is 1 in 50,000- 100,000 births."
[Moore and Persaud 1998, p. 161].
"Partial duplication at an early stage and attempted duplication from 2
weeks onward (when bilateral symmetry has become manifest) would result in
conjoined twins." (p. 30); ... Once the primitive streak has appeared at
about 13 days, splitting that involves the longitudinal axis of the embryo
would be incomplete and would result in conjoined twins." [O'Rahilly and
Muller 1994, p. 30]. ... Similarly, after the appearance of the primitive
streak and notochordal process, any attempt at longitudinal division would
be incomplete and would result in conjoined [Siamese] twins. " (ibid,
2001, p. 55)
22. "Another means of demonstrating the regulative
properties of early mammalian embryos is to dissociate mouse embryos into
separate blastomeres and then to combine the blastomeres of two or three
embryos. The combined blastomeres soon aggregate and reorganize to become a
single large embryo, which then goes on to become a normal-appearing
tetraparental or hexaparental mouse. By various techniques of making
chimeric embryos, it is even possible to combine blastomeres to produce
interspecies chimeras (e.g., a sheep-goat)." (p. 45); "... The
relationship between the position of the blastomeres and their ultimate
developmental fate was incorporated into the inside-outside hypothesis. The
outer blastomeres ultimately differentiate into the trophoblast, whereas the
inner blastomeres form the inner cell mass, from which the body of the
embryo arises. Although this hypothesis has been supported by a variety of
experiments, the mechanisms by which the blastomeres recognize their
positions and then differentiate accordingly have remained elusive and are
still little understood. If marked blastomeres from disaggregated
embryos are placed on the outside of another early embryo, they typically
contribute to the formation of the trophoblast. Conversely, if the same
marked cells are introduced into the interior of the host embryo, they
participate in formation of the inner cell mass. Outer cells in the early
mammalian embryo are linked by tight and gap junctions ... Experiments of
this type demonstrate that the developmental potential or potency (the types
of cells that a precursor cell can form) of many cells is greater than their
normal developmental fate (the types of cells that a precursor cell normally
forms)." (p. 45); " ... Classic strategies for investigating
developmental properties of embryos are (1) removing a part and
determining the way the remainder of the embryo compensates for the loss
(such experiments are called deletion experiments) and (2) adding a part and
determining the way the embryo integrates the added material into its
overall body plan (such experiments are called addition experiments).
Although some deletion experiments have been done, the strategy of addition
experiments has proved to be most fruitful in elucidating mechanisms
controlling mammalian embryogenesis." (p. 46). [Carlson 1999]
23. Many women, and men, assume that the "pre-embryo"
myth is true, and thus unfortunately believe contraceptive providers that
swear that their products could not possibly be abortifacient. However, it
is a scientific fact that several so-called "contraceptives" could possibly
sometimes be abortifacient: "Inhibition of Implantation: The administration
of relatively large doses of estrogens ("morning-after pills")
for several days, beginning shortly after unprotected sexual intercourse,
usually does not prevent fertilization but often prevents implantation of
the blastocyst. Diethylstilbestrol, given daily in high dosage for 5 to 6
days, may also accelerate passage of the dividing zygote along the uterine
tube (Kalant et al., 1990). Normally, the endometrium progresses to the
secretory phase of the menstrual cycle as the zygote forms, undergoes
cleavage, and enters the uterus. The large amount of estrogen disturbs the
normal balance between estrogen and progesterone that is necessary for
preparation of the endometrium for implantation of the blastocyst. Postconception administration of hormones to prevent implantation of the
blastocyst is sometimes used in cases of sexual assault or leakage of a
condom, but this treatment is contraindicated for routine contraceptive
use. The 'abortion pill' RU486 also destroys the conceptus by
interrupting implantation because of interference with the hormonal
environment of the implanting embryo.
"An intrauterine device (IUD) inserted into the uterus through the
vagina and cervix usually interferes with implantation by causing a local
inflammatory reaction. Some IUDs contain progesterone that is slowly
released and interferes with the development of the endometrium so that
implantation does not usually occur." (p. 58); ... [Question Chapter 2, #5
for students:] "#5. A young woman who feared that she might be pregnant
asked you about the so-called "morning after pills"
(postcoital birth control pills). What would you tell her? Would
termination of such an early pregnancy be considered an abortion?" (p. 45);
... [Answer #5 for students:] "Chapter 2, #5. Postcoital birth control pills
('morning after pills') may be prescribed in an emergency
(e.g., following sexual abuse). Ovarian hormones (estrogen) taken in large
doses within 72 hours after sexual intercourse usually prevent implantation
of the blastocyst, probably by altering tubal motility, interfering with
corpus luteum function, or causing abnormal changes in the endometrium.
These hormones prevent implantation, not fertilization. Consequently, they
should not be called contraceptive pills. Conception occurs but the
blastocyst does not implant. It would be more appropriate to call them
'contraimplantation pills'. Because the term 'abortion' refers to a
premature stoppage of a pregnancy, the term 'abortion' could be applied to
such an early termination of pregnancy." (p. 532); ... [Question chapter 3,
#2 for students]: "Case 3-2: A woman who was sexually assaulted
during her fertile period was given large doses of estrogen twice
daily for five days to interrupt a possible pregnancy. If fertilization had
occurred, what do you think would be the mechanism of action of this
hormone? What do lay people call this type of medical treatment? Is this
what the media refer to as the "abortion pill"? If not, explain the method
of action of the hormonal treatment. How early can a pregnancy be detected?"
(p. 59); [Answer Chapter 3, #2 for students:]: "Chapter 3-2 (p. 532):
Diethylstilbestrol (DES) appears to affect the endometrium by
rendering it unprepared for implantation, a process that is regulated by a
delicate balance between estrogen and progesterone. The large doses of
estrogen upset this balance. Progesterone makes the endometrium grow thick
and succulent so that the blastocyst may become embedded and nourished
adequately. DES pills are referred to as "morning after pills" by lay
people. When the media refer to the "abortion pill", they are usually
referring to RU-486. This drug, developed in France, interferes with
implantation of the blastocyst by blocking the production of progesterone by
the corpus luteum. A pregnancy can be detected at the end of the second week
after fertilization using highly sensitive pregnancy tests. Most tests
depend of the presence of an early pregnancy factor (EPF) in the maternal
serum. Early pregnancy can also be detected by ultrasonography." [Moore and
Persaud 1998, pp. 45, 58, 59, 532)].
24. But see, D. N. Irving, "The impact of
international bioethics on the 'sanctity of life ethic', and the ability of
Catholic ObGyn's to practice according to conscience"; presented at the
international conference, "The Future of Obstetrics and Gynaecology: The
Fundamental Human Right to Practice and Be Trained According to Conscience";
sponsored by the International Federation of Catholic Medical Associations
(FIAMC), and MaterCare International, Rome, Italy, June 18, 2001, Proceedings of the Conference (in press).
25. A considerable amount of the erroneous "science"
used in current bioethics debates on human embryo research, human cloning,
stem cell research, etc., can be found in the earliest bioethics "founding"
documents. For example, the National Commission's Report on the Fetus
(1975) stated: "For the purposes of this report, the Commission has used the
following [scientific] definitions which, in some instances, differ
from medical, legal or common usage. These definitions have been
adopted in the interest of clarity and to conform to the language used in
the legislative mandate" [referring to The National Research Act
1974]. Examples of their erroneous scientific definitions are the definition
of "pregnancy" as beginning at implantation, and of "fetus" as also
beginning at implantation. (The National Commission for the Protection of
Human Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research; Report and
Recommendations; Research on the Fetus; U.S. Department of Health,
Education and Welfare, 1975, p. 5; see also, Title 45; Code of Federal
Regulations; Part 46 [45 CFR 46]: Office for the Protection from Research
Risks [OPRR]: U.S. Department of Health and Human Services, 1983, p.
12.)
26. Converging Technologies for Improving Human Performance (National
Science Foundation, and the U.S. Dept. of Commerce, June 2002); Also at
http://www.wtec.org/reports.htm).
27. Peter Singer, One World: The Ethics of
Globalization (Yale University Press, 2002).
28. The National Commission for the Protection of Human
Subjects of Biomedical and Behavioral Research, The Belmont Report
(Washington, D.C: U.S. Department of Health, Education, and Welfare, 1978).
29. See Albert R. Jonsen, The Birth of Bioethics
(New York: Oxford University Press, 1998); also, David J. Rothman, Strangers at the Bedside: A History of How Law and Bioethics Transformed
Medical Decision Making (New York: BasicBooks; a subsidiary of Perseus
Books, L.L.C., 1991).
30. The National Research Act, Public Law
93-348, 93rd Congress, 2nd session (July 12, 1974); 88 STAT 342.
31. The Belmont Report of the National Commission is the explicit (sometimes implicit) "ethical" basis for all of the
following documents (a very small sample): United States Code of Federal
Regulations: Protection of Human Subjects [OPRR] 45 CFR 46 (revised Jan.
12, 1981, Mar. 8, 1983; reprinted July 1989, revised 1991 -- now in the Common Rule for all departments of the federal government which
volunteer to comply), (Washington, D.C.: DHHS); The President's Commission
for the Study of Ethical Problems in Medicine and Biomedical and Behavioral
Research, 10 individual Reports including Summing Up (Washington,
D.C., U.S. Government Printing Office, 1983); National Institutes of
Health: Report of the Human Fetal Tissue Transplant Research Panel (Washington, D.C.: NIH, December 1988); NIH Guide for Grants and
Contracts (Washington, D.C.: NIH, 1990); Office for the Protection from
Research Risks (OPRR -- now the OHRP), Protecting Human Research
Subjects: Institutional Review Board Guidebook (Washington, D.C. NIH,
1993); National Institutes of Health: Report of the Human Embryo Research
Panel (Washington, D.C.: NIH, Sept. 27, 1994); NIH Guidelines on the
Inclusion of Women and Minorities as Subjects in Clinical Research,
Federal Reg. 59 FR 14508 (Washington, D.C.: NIH, March 28, 1994); NIH
Outreach Notebook On the Inclusion of Women and Minorities in Biomedical and
Behavioral Research (Washington, D.C.: NIH, 1994); the CIOMS/WHO International Ethical Guidelines for Biomedical Research Involving Human
Subjects (Geneva: CIOMS/WHO, 1993); the proposed legislation in the
State of Maryland for the use of incompetent mentally ill patients in
experimental research; the current NIH Human Pluripotent Stem Cell
Research Guidelines, (Washington, D.C.: NIH, 2000). See also Jonsen,
esp. Chapter 12.
32. For an extensive 70-page treatment of the
historical roots and subsequent expansion of secular bioethics, as well as
an extensive scientific and philosophical evaluation of this theory, see
Dianne N. Irving, "What is 'bioethics'?", in Joseph W. Koterski, S.J., Life and Learning X: Proceedings of the Tenth University Faculty for Life
Conference (Washington, D.C.: University Faculty for Life, 2002), pp.
1-84)] This writer has one of her doctoral concentrations in bioethics from
the Kennedy Institute of Ethics, Georgetown University (1991). See also my
doctoral dissertation, Philosophical and Scientific Analysis of the
Nature of the Early Human Embryo (Washington, D.C.: Georgetown
University, 1991).
33. See, e.g., E.g., Tom Beauchamp and James Childress,
Principles of Biomedical Ethics (1st ed.) (New York: Oxford
University Press, 1979), pp. 45-47; Tom Beauchamp and LeRoy Walters (eds.),
Contemporary Issues in Bioethics (2nd ed.) (Belmont, CA: Wadsworth
Publishing Company, Inc., 1982), p.26; Tom Beauchamp, Philosophical
Ethics (New York: McGraw-Hill Book Company, 1982, pp. 124-128, 141,
188-190; Tom Beauchamp; and Laurence B. McCullough, Medical Ethics: The
Moral Responsibilities of Physicians (New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc.,
1984), pp. 13-16, 21-22, 39-40, 46, 48, 133-35, 162-64.
34. Ibid.; See also, e.g., D. N. Irving, notes
1, 3, 5, 11, 17, 23, 23 and 32 supra, and notes 36, 38, 42 and 46 infra for extensive scientific, philosophical and bioethical literature
references on these and related issues that might be found helpful.
35. For example, The Hastings Center's Daniel Callahan
conceded in the 25th anniversary issue of The Hastings Center Report
celebrating the "birth of bioethics", that the principles of bioethics
simply had not worked. But not to worry, he said, we might try
communitarianism now: "The range of questions that a communitarian bioethics
would pose could keep the field of bioethics well and richly occupied for at
least another 25 years"! [Daniel Callahan, "Bioethics: Private Choice and
Common Good", Hastings Center Report (May-June 1994), 24:3:31]. See
also: Gilbert C. Meilaender, Body Soul, and Bioethics (Notre Dame,
IN: University of Notre Dame Press, 1995), p. x; Raanan Gillon (ed.), Principles of Health Care Ethics (New York: John Wiley & Sons, 1994) --
in which 99 scholars from around the world jump into the fray over bioethics
-- by far the majority of them arguing against bioethics "principlism";
Renee Fox, "The Evolution of American Bioethics: A Sociological
Perspective," in George Weisz (ed.), Social Sciences Perspective on
Medical Ethics (Philadelphia: University of Pennsylvania Press, 1990),
pp. 201-220. Renee Fox and Judith Swazey, "Medical Morality is Not Bioethics
-- Medical Ethics in China and the United States," Perspectives in
Biology and Medicine 27 (1984):336-360, in Jonsen p. 358; Renee C. Fox
and Judith P. Swazey, "Leaving the Field", Hastings Center Report
(September-October 1992), 22:5:9-15.
36. D.N. Irving, "Academic fraud and conceptual
transfer in bioethics: Abortion, human embryo research and psychiatric
research", in Joseph W. Koterski (ed.), Life And Learning IV
(Washington, D.C.: University Faculty for Life, 1995), pp. 193-215.
37. For example, as Jonsen noted (p. 335), "When
Beauchamp and Childress formulated the principle of autonomy, they fused the
Kantian concept of respect for persons with John Stuart Mill's quite
different notion of liberty ... Folding together the distinct views of Kant
and Mill blurred the edges of both the Kantian and the Millsean notions." It
also, of course, blurred the edges of the metaphysical, epistemological, and
anthropological presuppositions inherent in those diverse and contrary
theories of ethics. Hence, Kant's "respect for persons" evolved rapidly into
the Millsean utilitarian version of "respect for autonomy" (pace Tom
Beauchamp) -- where "autonomy" referred only to "persons", and "persons"
were defined only as "moral agents". Most unfortunately, what it also
did therefore was turn non-autonomous human beings into non-persons
(since they are not "autonomous moral agents").
38.
D. N. Irving, "The bioethics mess", Crisis Magazine, Vol. 19, No. 5, May 2001.
39. Original Hastings Center scholar Robert Morison, in
Jonsen (pp. 109-110). As Jonsen noted, "Morison's letter was a sobering
reminder of the anomalous role of an 'ethics commission' in a pluralistic,
secular society."
40. "A fairly widespread perception exists, both within
and without the bioethics community, that the prevailing U.S. approach to
the ethical problems raised by modern medicine is ailing. Principlism
[bioethics] is the patient. The diagnosis is complex, but many believe that
the patient is seriously, if not terminally, ill. The prognosis is
uncertain. Some observers have proposed a variety of therapies to restore it
to health. Others expect its demise and propose ways to go on without it.",
Albert Jonsen, in Edwin DuBose, Ronald Hamel and Laurence O'Connell (eds.),
A Matter of Principles?: Ferment in U.S. Bioethics (Valley Forge, PA:
Trinity Press International, 1994), p.1. See also note 35 supra.
41. These and other secular bioethics issues have been
addressed at great length using predominantly the bioethics principles by
secular bioethicists since the beginning of the field -- especially in such
classic secular bioethics journals as The Hastings Center Report; The Journal of Medicine and Philosophy; The Journal of Clinical
Ethics; Bioethics News; The Journal of Law and Medicine;
Law, Medicine and Health Care; American Journal of Law and
Medicine; The Kennedy Institute of Ethics Journal; Bioethics;
Medical Humanities Review; Cambridge Quarterly of Healthcare
Ethics; Christian Bioethics; Journal of Religious Ethics;
Philosophy and Public Affairs; etc. (See Jonsen, p. 414). There now
exists an entire library containing almost exclusively bioethics articles,
books and archives -- i.e., The Kennedy Institute of Ethics National
Reference Center for Bioethics Literature, at Georgetown University, much of
which is on the software BioethicsLine (which is plugged into the NIH
National Library of Medicine, and to bioethics centers around the world).
The arguments from these bioethics journals, books, etc., also have been
continuously applied for over 30 years to "ethics" issues in other fields,
e.g., medical research, law, business, engineering, religion, politics,
education, military ethics, education, etc. -- and then extended to
international issues.
42. See, e.g., Austin Fagothey, Right and Reason
(3rd ed. only)(St. Louis, MO: The C.V. Mosby Company, 1963); Vernon Bourke,
Ethics (New York: The Macmillan Company, 1953); Ralph McInerny, Ethica Thomistica (Washington, D.C.: The Catholic University of America
Press, 1982). See also D. N. Irving,
"Which ethics for science and public policy?", Accountability in
Research 1993, 3(2-3):77-99.; ibid., "Quality assurance auditors:
Between a rock and a hard place", Quality Assurance: Good Practice,
Regulation, and Law March 1994, 3(1):33-52; ibid., "Science,
philosophy, theology and altruism: The chorismos and the zygon",
address delivered to the Evangelische Akademie Loccum, Loccum, Germany,
April 3, 1992, and published in: Hans May, Meinfried Striegnitz and Philip
Hefner (eds.), Loccumer Protokoll 1992, (Rehburg-Loccum, Germany:
Evangelische Akademie Loccum, Spring 1996); ibid., "Which
ethics for the 21st Century?", Presented at the Eighth Annual Rose Mass
Brunch, sponsored by the John Carroll Society, The Grand Hyatt Hotel,
Washington, D.C., March 14, 1999.
43. See especially, Tom Strachan and Andrew P. Read,Human
Molecular Genetics(New York: Wiley-Liss, 1999), pp. 539-541.
44. See esp. notes 18, 19, 20
which explain "regulation", supra; (also 12, 13, 18) supra.
See also the use of "blastomere separation" and "blastocyst splitting"
proposed by many IVF researchers:
Professor Dr. Mithhat Erenus, "Embryo
Multiplication": "In such cases, patients may benefit from embryo
multiplication, as discussed in the study by Massey and co-workers. ...
Since each early embryonic cell is totipotent (i.e., has the ability to
develop and produce a normal adult), embryo multiplication is technically
possible. Experiments in this area began as early as 1894, when the
totipotency of echinoderm embryonic cells was reported ... In humans,
removal of less than half of the cells from an embryo have been documented.
No adverse effects were reported when an eighth to a quarter of the
blastomeres were removed from an embryo on day 3 after insemination. ...
Further evidence supporting the viability and growth of partial human
embryos is provided by cryopreservation. After thawing four-cell embryos,
some cells may not survive, leaving one-, two-, or three-cell embryos. These
partial embryos survive and go to term, but at a lower rate than whole
embryos. ... Based on the results observed in lower order mammals, the
critical period of development to ensure success in separating human
blastomeres should be at the time of embryonic gene expression, which is
reported in humans to be between the four- and eight-cell stages. .... The
second potential method of embryo multiplication is blastocyst splitting.
... Embryo multiplication by nuclear transfer has been used in experimental
cattle breeding programs. ... IVF clinics routinely replace multiple (three
to four) embryos into the uterus to increase the chances of a successful
pregnancy. For couples who have less than three quality embryos for
transfer, blastomere separation could be of benefit." [Source]
See also, "New Ways to Produce Identical Twins -- A Continuing
Controversy": "Identical twins occur naturally approximately 3.5 times out
of every 1000 human births. And, to date, scientists still don't know why
and can't predict that they will, in any given birth, occur. However, in the
last half of this century, and indeed, in the past ten to fifteen years,
scientific advances have impacted on twins and other multiples and their
families in numerous ways. ... Now, a new method of actually producing
identical twins looms near. Called "blastomere separation" (the separation
of a two- to eight-cell blastomere into two identical demi-embryos), it is
potentially one method of helping infertile couples have children through in vitro fertilization (IVF). ... The following is excerpted from the
medical journal Assisted Reproduction Reviews, May 1994. Dr. Joe B. Massey,
who heads an in vitro clinic in Atlanta. Dr. Massey reviews the
advances in blastomere separation and discusses the potential indications,
benefits, limitations, and ethics of using this method to produce
monozygotic twin embryos for IVF patients. The Twins Foundation, by
presenting Dr. Massey's material for your information neither advocates nor
rejects any such procedures: 'Embryo Multiplication by Blastomere
Separation-One Doctor's Proposal [Massey]: In spite of many advances in
human vitro fertilization (IVF), there are still many problems. While
leading clinics now have success rates of about 30%, many other clinics lag
behind. Still, the number of couples undergoing IVF continues to increase
despite high costs.' ... According to Dr. Massey, 'Observations on the
potential impact of removing less than half of the cells from the human
embryo have been well documented in pre-clinical embryo biopsy studies.'
(For more on this story see Research Update Vol. 9, No. 1, 1994)." [on THE
TWINS FOUNDATION (http://twinsfoundation.com/ru-v9n1-1994.htm)].
See also "embryo self-selection": "The ability to grow embryos for five
days to the blastocyst stage of development in the laboratory, rather than
the traditional three days, allows clinicians to determine with greater
certainty which embryos are really the "best" in terms of their potential
for implantation. Consequently, blastocyst culture makes it possible to
select the best one or two blastocysts vs. three or four early embryos to
transfer back to the mother. Fertility centers like Shady Grove constantly
strive to improve IVF success rates through the steady refinements of
clinical and laboratory techniques. Clinical blastocyst culture and transfer
is the next important step in that evolution,' explains Robert Stillman, MD:
'After five days of growth, the cells of the embryo should have divided many
times over, and have begun to differentiate by function. The embryos that
survive to this stage of development are usually strong, healthy, and
robust. ... Simply put, this self selection can be viewed as 'survival of
the fittest. ... Which ones to transfer? Which ones are really the "best'?
Two additional days in the blastocyst culture medium allows the natural
winnowing process to continue. Thus, after 5 days of growth in the
laboratory, only 2 or 3 of the original ten embryos may remain viable. We
now know the best embryos to transfer. ... In thinking of the example above,
patients who have fewer oocytes retrieved, fewer fertilized or fewer
dividing embryos by day three in culture have no advantage using blastocyst
culture, since little is to be gained in further embryo 'self selection'.
Dr. Stillman emphasizes." [on FERTILITY NETWORK (http://fertilitynetwork.com/articles/articles-blastocyst.htm)]
ETHICS COMMITTEE OF THE AMERICAN SOCIETY FOR REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE,
"'Ethical Considerations of Assisted Reproductive Technologies': Originally
published as a supplement to the ASRM medical journal (Fertility and
Sterility 1994;62:Suppl 1), Ethical Considerations for Assisted
Reproductive Technologies covers the American Society for Reproductive
Medicine's position on several aspects of reproductive medicine, including:
... the moral and legal status of the preembryo, ... the use
of donor sperm, donor oocytes and donor preembryos, ... the cryopreservation of oocytes and preembryos, micro techniques such as:
zona drilling, microinjection, blastomere separation (cloning), and
assisted hatching." [http://www.asrm.com/Media/Ethics/ethics94.html].
See also: "Because early embryonic cells are totipotent, the possibility
of splitting or separating the blastomeres of early preimplantation embryos
to increase the number of embryos that are available for IVF treatment of
infertility is being discussed. Because embryo splitting could lead to two
or more embryos with the same genome, the term "cloning" has been used to
describe this practice. ... Splitting one embryo into two or more embryos
could serve the needs of infertile couples in several ways. For couples who
can produce only one or two embryos, splitting embryos could increase the
number of embryos available for transfer in a single IVF cycle. Because the
IVF pregnancy rate increases with the number of embryos transferred, it is
thought that embryo splitting when only one or two embryos are produced may
result in a pregnancy that would not otherwise have occurred. For couples
who produce more than enough embryos for one cycle of transfer, splitting
one or more embryos may provide sufficient embryos for subsequent transfers
without having to go through another retrieval cycle, thus lessening the
physical burdens and costs of IVF treatment for infertility. In addition,
this technique may have application in preimplantation genetic diagnosis.
... Whereas these ethical concerns raise important issues, neither alone nor
together do they offer sufficient reasons for not proceeding with research
into embryo splitting and blastomere separation. ... In sum, since embryo
splitting has the potential to improve the efficacy of IVF treatments for
infertility, research to investigate the technique is ethically acceptable.
Persons asked to donate gametes or embryos for such research should be fully
informed that research in embryo splitting is intended or planned as a
result of their donation. The fears of possible future abuses of the
technique are not sufficient to stop valid research in use of embryo
splitting as a treatment for infertility. This statement was developed by
the American Society for Reproductive Medicine's Ethics Committee and
accepted by the Board of Directors on December 8, 1995. [ on AMERICAN
SOCIETY OF REPRODUCTIVE MEDICINE (http://www.asrm.com/Media/Ethics/embsplit.html)]
45. Tom Strachan and Andrew P. Read, Human Molecular
Genetics 2 (New York: John Wiley & Sons, Inc, 1999): "The term 'clones'
indicates genetic identity and so can describe genetically identical
molecules (DNA clones), genetically identical cells or genetically identical
organisms. Animal clones occur naturally as a result of sexual reproduction.
For example, genetically identical twins are clones who happened to have
received exactly the same set of genetic instructions from two donor
individuals, a mother and a father. A form of animal cloning can also occur
as a result of artificial manipulation to bring about a type of asexual
reproduction. The genetic manipulation in this case uses nuclear transfer
technology: a nucleus is removed from a donor cell then transplanted into an
oocyte whose own nucleus has previously been removed. The resulting
'renucleated' oocyte can give rise to an individual who will carry the
nuclear genome of only one donor individual, unlike genetically identical
twins. The individual providing the donor nucleus and the individual that
develops from the 'renucleated' oocyte are usually described as "clones",
but it should be noted that they share only the same nuclear DNA; they do
not share the same mitochondrial DNA, unlike genetically identical twins.
... Nuclear transfer technology was first employed in embryo cloning, in
which the donor cell is derived from an early embryo, and has been long
established in the case of amphibia. ... Wilmut et al (1997) reported
successful cloning of an adult sheep. For the first time, an adult nucleus
had been reprogrammed to become totipotent once more, just like the genetic
material in the fertilized oocyte from which the donor cell had ultimately
developed. ... Successful cloning of adult animals has forced us to accept
that genome modifications once considered irreversible can be reversed and
that the genomes of adult cells can be reprogrammed by factors in the oocyte
to make them totipotent once again." (pp. 508-509)
46. For detailed scientific analyses of several current
national and international proposed legislations on human cloning and human
embryonic stem cell research, see: D. N. Irving, "Analysis of Canadian Bill
C-56: Human Reproductive Technology Act 2002" (submitted on request to
Campaign Life Coalition, Toronto, Canada, on May 17, 2002); ibid.,
"University Faculty for Life:
Submission of Concern to the Canadian CIHR Re the 'Human Stem Cell Research
Recommendations 2001'" (written as UFL Board Member on behalf of UFL;
submitted to Dr. Alan Bernstein, President, Canadian Institutes of
Health Research Working Group on Stem Cell Research, Ottawa, Ontario,
Canada, on June 3, 2001); ibid.,
"University Faculty for Life:
Submission of Concern to the British House of Lords Re the 'Human
Fertilisation and Embryology (Research Purposes) Regulations 2001'" (written
as UFL Board Member on behalf of UFL; submitted to Tony Rawsthorne, Select
Committee, House of Lords, London, on June 1, 2001); ibid.,
"University Faculty for Life: Letter of Concern to Sen. Brownback and
Congressman Weldon Re the 'Human Cloning Bill 2001'" (written as UFL Board
Member on behalf of UFL; submitted to Sen. Brownback and Congr. Weldon, U.S.
Congress, Washington, D.C., on May 27, 2001); ibid., "Analysis: Stem
Cells that Could Become Embryos: Implications for the NIH Guidelines on Stem
Cell Research", July 22, 2001[written as consultant on human embryology and
human embryo research as Fellow of The Linacre Institute (CMA), The Catholic
Medical Association (USA), and The International Federation of Catholic
Medical Associations (FIAMC)].
47. Henry Campbell Black, Black's Law Dictionary
(4th ed.) (St. Paul, MN: West Publishing Co, 1951), pp. 1577-1578.